The Impact Of Sea Level Rise

The Impact Of Sea Level Rise With the rapid growth of knowledge in climate change, especially in sea level rise, its science and impacts, it is hardly surprising that the relationship between sea level rise and its impact on our environment, policies and building practices have attracted considerable attention in recent years. The policymakers, authorities and governing bodies acknowledge that increased sea levels will have significant medium to long-term social, economic and environmental impacts. In an attempt to provide an integrated view of climate change, Synthesis Report (IPCC, 2007) is produced which summarises observed changes in climate and their effects on natural and human systems, regardless of their causes, assesses the causes of the observed changes, presents projections of future climate change and related impacts under different scenarios. Further report discusses adaptation and mitigation options over the next few decades and their interactions with sustainable development, assesses the relation ship between adaptation and mitigation on a more conceptual basis and takes a longer-term perspective. Science of sea level rise From geological perspective, evidence show that the Earths climate has changed through the Earths geological history, spanning more than 3 billion years. From the abundant literature on the sea level rise, it has been observed that ocean levels have always fluctuated with changes in global temperatures, supported by different studies. During ice ages when the earth was 5Â °C colder than today; the sea level often was more than 100 meters below the present level (Dony et al., 1962; Kennet, 1982; Oldale, 1985). The sea level was approximately 20 feet higher than the current sea level in last interglacial period when the average temperature was about 1Â °C warmer than today (Mercer, 1968). Today, no fewer than 13 studies of global-mean sea level (MSL) change over various periods during the last 100 years concluded that MSL has been rising (IPCC, 1990, Ch. 9, Table 9.1 pp. 263). It appears that two primary processes contribute to sea level rise (SLR): thermal expansion of the oceans an d the loss of land-based ice due to increased melting (Bindoff et al., 2007). Global average sea level has risen since 1961 at an average rate of 1.8 [1.3 to 2.3] mm/yr and since 1993 at 3.1 [2.4 to 3.8] mm/yr, with contributions from thermal expansion, melting glaciers and ice caps, and the polar ice sheets (IPCC, 2007). However, whether the faster rate for 1993 to 2003 reflects decadal variation or an increase in the longer-term trend is unclear (IPCC, 2007). According to IPCC (2007) special report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A1B scenario, the steric sea level changes relative to the global mean (the local part) in different ocean basins are attributed to differential heating and salinity changes of various ocean layers and associated physical processes. As a result of these changes, water tends to move from the ocean interior to continental shelves (Yin et al., 2010) Impacts of sea level rise on environment Sea level rise (SLR) has direct impact on environment. Increase in temperatures at global level as well as regional level has affected many marine systems (IPPC Report, 1997). A rise in sea level would inundate wetlands and lowlands, accelerate coastal erosion, exacerbate coastal flooding, threaten coastal structures, raise water tables, and increase the salinity of rivers, bays and aquifers (Barth and Titus, 1984). The literature confirms that indirect effects of sea level rise, as well as the potential impact of extreme events, may be more significant than direct effects in the future. Regarding human settlements, Scott (1996) expresses the view that the impacts of sea-level rise and extreme events are likely to be experienced indirectly through effects on other sectors for instance changes in water supply, agricultural productivity (Brinkman, 1995) and human migration. In addition to that, intensity and frequency change will be associated with oceans (Venugopalan, 1996; Nicholls et al, 1996), which will ultimately play a dominant part in the internal dynamics of human demography. Literature also explains the severity of global warming leading to sea level rise. Two global coupled climate models show that even if the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere had been stabilized in the year 2000, we are already committed to further global warming of about another half degree and an additional 320% sea level rise caused by thermal expansion by the end of the 21st century. Projected weakening of the meridional overturning circulation in the North Atlantic Ocean does not lead to a net cooling in Europe. At any given point in time, even if concentrations are stabilized, there is a commitment to future climate changes that will be greater than those we have already observed (Meehl, et al., 2005). Many terrestrial, freshwater, and marine systems are already being affected by regional increases in temperatures (IPCC, 2007). The most rapid changes have been seen in parts of the Polar Regions where 2-3Â °C increases in temperature have occurred in the last 50 years. Concomitant changes in precipitation, ocean biogeochemistry, sea level, and extreme weather events are generating global concerns about the most effective strategies for conserving biological diversity as climate changes. Further concerns that societies may not be able to stabilize greenhouse gases at a level that will result in only a 2Â °C increase in global temperatures above preindustrial levels (Anderson Bows 2008) are leading to a growing realization that governments should develop contingency plans for 4Â °C increases in temperature. Biological diversity at all levels of organization is affected directly and indirectly by climate change and by adaptation and mitigation measures. Although the SLR pattern is very important, it suffers from an insufficient amount of study to date and was simply attributed to natural geological processes. With the recent progress in this field (Gregory et al. 2001; Levermann et al. 2005; Landerer et al. 2007) a better understanding of the SLR patterns in past, present, and future climates, and their underlying mechanisms, have been identified (Yin, et al., 2010). The acceleration is distinct from decadal variations in global sea level that have been reported in previous studies. Increased rates in the tropical and southern oceans primarily account for the acceleration. The timing of the global acceleration corresponds to similar sea level trend changes associated with upper ocean heat content and ice melt (Merrifield, et al., 2009). Impacts of sea level rise on policies The release of IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR) motivated researchers to expand the ranges of approaches and methods in use, and of the characterisations of future conditions required by those methods to undertake informed decision making in an environment of uncertainty through assessments of climate change impacts, adaptation and vulnerability (CCIAV) (Carter et al., 2007). Their range of application in assessments has since been significantly expanded and aims to understand and manage as much of the full range of uncertainty, extending from emissions through to vulnerability (Ahmad et al., 2001). The most commonly used standard assessment approach such as impact approach aims to evaluate the likely impacts of climate change under a given scenario and to assess the need for adaptation and/or mitigation to reduce any resulting vulnerability to climate risks (Carter et al., 2007). However, other approaches such as adaptation and vulnerability- based approaches, integrated assessme nt and risk management are increasingly being incorporated into mainstream approaches to decision-making, resulting into incorporation of wider objectives such as stakeholder involvement, capacity-building, prioritisation and costing of adaptation measures, interrelationships between vulnerability and adaptation assessments and to integrate national development priorities and adaptation options into existing or future sustainable development plans (SBI, 2001; COP, 2005). While, based upon research, the common response to sea level rise is to understand impacts and relate them to the categories of future characterisations which should be comprehensive, capable to capture the various aspects of the socio-economic/biophysical system it aims to represent and would indicate details with which any single element is characterised. From many characterisations of the future, most commonly used in CCIAV and other studies was found to be Scenarios and Projection. A scenario is a coherent, internally consistent, and plausible description of a possible future state of the world (Nakicenovic et al., 2000; Raskin et al., 2005). Scenarios are not predictions or forecasts, but are alternative images without ascribed likelihoods of how the future might unfold. They may be qualitative, quantitative, or both. An overarching logic often related several components of a scenario (Carter et al., 2007). Currently, two basic approaches are used to support climate adaptation p olicy on a regional and local scale, the predictive top-down approach and the resilience bottom-up approach (Dessai and Sluijs, 2008). Further studying the adaptation-based approaches risk management and integrated assessment approaches are found to be effective. Risk management examines the adaptive capacity and adaptation measures required to improve the resilience or robustness of a system exposed to climate change (Smit and Wandel, 2006). Risk-management approach can also be linked directly to mitigation analysis (Nakicenovic et al., 2007). Over the past 15-20 years, the scientific assessment of climate change impacts has improved considerable with regard to incorporating the human dimensions (e.g., IPCC, 1997; IPCC 2001a; NRC, 1999; Rayner and Malone, 1998; Wynne, 1987). At the same time, as mentioned in Moser (2005), various 23 studies support the fact, attention to the uncertainties, unknowns, and potential surprises in the science of climate change and in impact assessments have grown considerably. Moser, S (2005) emphasis the need of assessments to be taken seriously embedded with local realities and constraints to affect individual decision-makers and communal responses to climate change. Moser (2005) is an excellent study aimed at understanding coastal zone policies and their histories, the challenges and realities of costal policy-making and management, perceptions and understanding of climate change driven sea-level rise and coastal impacts. In other studies, Nicholls and Tol (2006) explored the potential impacts of sea-level rise using complementary impact and economic analysis methods at the global scale. In all future scenarios such as emission scenarios and socio-economic scenarios, they found that the exposure and hence the impact potential due to increased flooding by sea-level rise increases significantly compared to the base year (1990). The most vulnerable future worlds to sea-level rise appear to be which reflects differences in the socio-economic situation, rather than the magnitude of sea-level rise. However, future worlds which experience larger rises in sea-level than considered now, more extreme events, a reactive rather than proactive approach to adaptation, where GDP growth is slower or more unequal than, in the future remains a concern. As climate change threatens to cause the largest refugee crisis in human history (Biermann and Boas, 2010), the situation calls for new governance for the protection and voluntary resettlement of climate refugees-defined as people who have to leave their habitats because of sudden or gradual alterations in their natural environment related to one of three impacts of climate change: sea level rise, extreme weather events, and drought and water scarcity. Despite the threat of rising sea levels, the drive to develop Floridas coastline continues, reported by Mark Schrope, 2010. In his report, he refers to the retreat from submerging lands was relatively uncomplicated with low numbers and a simple lifestyle about 8,000 years ago when there were Native Americans living on land that now lies beneath the Gulf of Mexico (Balsillie et. al., 2004). Further he adds, that vulnerability, combined with its highly concentrated costal population, means that Florida will be a case study for other states and the world for in case of what would happen if you dont prepare for sea level, especially in lack of legislative and public attention to the issues. Impact of sea level rise on building practices Anticipated climate changes will greatly amplify risks to coastal populations. Globally, approximately 400 people live within 20 m of sea level and within 20 km of a coast (Small et al., 2000). By the end of the century, increases in SLR of two to five times the present rates could lead to inundation of low-lying coastal regions, more frequent flooding episodes, and worsening beach erosion (IPCC, 1996a and IPCC, 1996b). Many developed nations have experienced a four-decade rush to the shore, with concomitant beachfront development and exponentially increasing total values for beachfront real estate, infrastructure and buildings and that this unprecedented accelerating coastal development has unfortunately coincided with a century of accelerating global sea level rise means that the prediction of the future rate of shoreline retreat has become a major societal priority (Pilkey and Cooper, 2004). Highly developed coastlines with a large population and considerable private property and infrastructure are potentially at risk from inundation and flooding as well illustrated by three urban case study sites, lower Manhattan, Coney Island, and Rockaway Beach, in Gornitz et al. (2001) study. The greater frequency of severe flooding episodes may lead to abandonment of lower floors, as in Venice, or ultimately of entire buildings Gornitz et al. (2001). Thus zoning and land use policies would need to be established to enable an orderly and equitable pullback from the most vulnerable areas. This could be accomplished by a number of mechanisms such as designation of construction setback lines, removal of buildings or hard structures in imminent danger of collapse and acquisition of empty inland space so that beaches and wetland could be rolled out. To support dense local populations in low-lying sectors of Bangkok, structural measures that have already been undertaken to reduce the rates of coastal erosion which includes building storage dams, constructing barrages, divertin g channels and dykes, as well as planning future measures such as the development of pumping stations (Vitoolpanyakij, 2009). The implementation of improved warning and forecasting methods and the adoption of some land-use planning measures would reduce both current and future vulnerability such as altering the design standard of a physical defence such as realigned channel or a defence wall, altering the effectiveness of building codes based on designing against specified return period events, altering the area exposed to a potential hazard, and/or introducing hazards previously not experienced in an area (Yohe, 2007). Conclusion The issue of global sea level rise has aroused much interest because of its great practical and scientific importance, especially its major impact on most coastal regions. Bird (1993), Warrick et al. (1993) and Nichollas and Leatherman (1994) have well documented serious consequences of even a few mm/yr increase of sea level. Moreover, sea level rise is a unique indicator of global climate change, potentially providing a means for evaluating climate models via their hindcasts and forecasts (Douglas, 1997). Most literature calls for further research and rightly mentioned by Titus (1989) demands better estimates of future sea level rise, improved assessments of the impacts of global warming on coastal environments, improved ocean modelling that will be necessary for better projections of surface air temperatures which would require a substantial increase in the resources allocated for monitoring and modelling local, regional and global climate change. Other climatic variables such as winds, waves and storms should also be taken in consideration and sea-level rise should not be considered in isolation.

Literary Analysis “Life After High School” Essay

The short story, â€Å"Life After High School† by Joyce Carol Oates, is set in the small town of South Lebanon, New York in 1959. The first three quarters of the story is the tragic tale of one-sided love where Zachary Graff, the intelligent but socially awkward teenager falls in love with Sunny Burhman, the attractive and popular girl that everyone adores. She rejects his proposal and he can’t take it and decides to take his own life. Later, we find out his real love was Tobias, his one friend. His love for Sunny was his last way to fit in with the norms of society. Oates shows us the intertwined lives of three high school students and the paths taken to free themselves of the entrapment of their uncomfortable 1950s conventional lifestyles. Barbara â€Å"Sunny† Burhman is known as the popular too good to be true Christian girl in the story. She was everything the perfect, all American 1950’s girl was supposed to be. In the beginning of the story she is referred to as ‘Sunny’ because her 6th grade teacher suggested calling her this because of her sunny personality. â€Å"Tell you what, boys and girls – let’s call Barbara ‘Sunny’ from now on – that’s what she is† (Oates 512). Sunny’s freedom came by Zachary taking his own life. â€Å"The irony had not escaped Barbara Burhman that, in casting away his young life so recklessly, Zachary Graff had freed her for hers† (Oates 518). She drops the name Sunny and just goes by Barbara Burhman. When she goes off to school she excels in college and solely works on academics. She drops all the â€Å"Sunny† aspects of her life that trapped her and she became a prestigious teacher and author. There was no place for an agnostic gay male like Tobias Shanks in a 1950’s small town high school and he is forced to lead his life in secrecy. After Zachary’s death Tobias Shank’s secret is safe from his fellow high school students. Tobias, like Barbara, changes his name after high school and goes by T.R. Shanks. Unlike Barbara, the author doesn’t let us know Tobias’ exact  point of his freedom from the restrictions of the 50’s lifestyle, but it does come. It possibly comes after the changing times of the 60’s and 70’s. T.R. is able to come out and find his place in the world as a gay man. He goes on to become a successful playwright and director winning many awards Oates leads us to believe that in the beginning of the story Zachary is a typical awkward intellectual that falls in love with the perfect girl in his high school. In reality, his true love is his one friend Tobias, but the constraints of the 1950’s lifestyle led Zachary to believe that Sunny was his perfect choice. Up until death Zachary was conflicted. When both Sunny and Tobias reject him, death seems his only way to freedom. Oates gives some additional insight about Zachary’s thoughts by telling the reader the contents of his car after his suicide. The author, by her quirky ending, left it up to the reader to decide that Zachary may have contemplated other scenarios that possibly wouldn’t have been appropriate with the 50’s perfect life style. In Zachary’s suicide note he takes responsibility and releases all parties of any guilt. This suggests that he did feel constrained by the 50’s lifestyle to the very end. Oates writes a story about three high school students of the 1950’s that students of today can empathize with. Although there still may be other issues of acceptance, the time period in which the story is placed was an especially conservative time. Suicide, homosexuality, and women playing important roles in society outside the home were not part of the social norm of the 50’s. Today these issues are much more accepted. Oates shows us the intertwined lives of three students and the paths taken to free themselves of the entrapment of their uncomfortable 1950s conventional lifestyles.

Essay on Identity in a Color-Conscious Society in...

Identity in a Color-Conscious Society in Invisible Man Critics generally agree that Ralph Ellisons award winning novel, Invisible Man, is a work of genius, broad in its appeal and universal in its meaning. Its various themes have been stated as: the geography of hell . . . the real brotherhood of man (Morris 5), the emergence of Negro personality from the fixed boundaries of southern life (Bone 46), and the search for human and national identity (Major 17). Rich in symbolism and cleverly interwoven, Invisible Mans linear plot structure, told from the first-person, limited point of view, and framed by the Everyman protagonist from his subterranean home, follows the narrator in†¦show more content†¦Critic Todd Libber points out that invisibility results from a perception each society holds to be true. What does not fit into that idea of reality is therefore assigned to chaos and is invisible (90). The rising action takes root at the time when, on his death bed, the narrators grandfather reveals to the family that the life of a black person living in a foreign white America has always been and still is a life of war and opposition, and to keep up the fight. This puzzles the young impressionable narrator, for his grandfather has been the meekest of men who, as is further revealed, believes himself to have been a traitor and a spy all these years, and that his meekness has, in actuality, been a dangerous activity. The tactics of agree em to death and undermine em with grins (15,16) are the tools that enable the Negro to survive, in essence agreeing to invisibility, until blindness strikes down white society (Margolies 135). Thus, Grandfathers words establish and foreshadow the cultural beliefs, such as racism and bigotry that the young narrator will encounter in a prejudicial society as he navigates his way through the social mine fields of America. 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An Essay Likely About Nothing - 1334 Words

for human subject protection? a) The Public Health Service (PHS) syphilis study b) Nazi medical experiments c) Jewish chronic disease study d) Obedience to authority study (Milgram study) 160) IRB continuing review of an approved protocol must: a) Must occur only when the level of risk changes. b) Occur at least annually. c) Must be conducted by a convened IRB. d) Include copies of all signed consent forms. 161) A subject in a clinical research trial experiences a serious, unanticipated adverse drug experience. How should the investigator proceed after the discovery of the adverse event occurrence? a) Report the adverse drug experience to the IRB only if there are several other occurrences. b) Report the adverse drug†¦show more content†¦c) Exclude the man from the study. d) Request the IRB waive the requirement for a signed informed consent. 167) An investigator is confronted with a life-threatening situation that necessitates using a test article in a human subject who is unable to provide informed consent and there is no time to obtain consent for the individuals legal representative. Under the FDA regulations for using test articles, which of the following describes the best course of action for the investigator: a) Use the test article without obtaining consent from the subject or the legal representative then notify the IRB. b) The investigator and another physician agree that the situation necessitates the use of the test article. 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